3,3′‐diindolylmethane suppresses the growth of hepatocellular carcinoma by regulating its invasion, migration and er stress‐mediated mitochondrial apoptosis

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the leading cause of cancer‐related death worldwide with limited treatment options. Biomarker‐based active phenolic flavonoids isolated from medicinal plants might shed some light on potential therapeutics for treating HCC. 3,3′‐diindolylmethane (DIM) is a unique biologically active dimer of indole‐3‐carbinol (I3C), a phytochemical compound derived from Brassica species of cruciferous vegetables—such as broccoli, kale, cabbage, and cauli-flower. It has anti‐cancer effects on various cancers such as breast cancer, prostate cancer, endome-trial cancer, and colon cancer. However, the molecular mechanism of DIM involved in reducing cancer risk and/or enhancing therapy remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to eval-uate anti‐cancer and therapeutic effects of DIM in human hepatoma cell lines Hep3B and HuhCell proliferation was measured with MTT and trypan blue colony formation assays. Migration, inva-sion, and apoptosis were measured with Transwell assays and flow cytometry analyses. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) intensity and the loss in mitochondrial membrane potential of Hep3B and Huh7 cells were determined using dihydroethidium (DHE) staining and tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester dye. Results showed that DIM significantly suppressed HCC cell growth, proliferation, migration, and invasion in a concentration‐dependent manner. Furthermore, DIM treatment acti-vated caspase‐dependent apoptotic pathway and suppressed epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) via ER stress and unfolded protein response (UPR). Taken together, our results suggest that DIM is a potential anticancer drug for HCC therapy by targeting ER‐stress/UPR.