In Situ and Operando Analyses of Reaction Mechanisms in Vanadium Oxides for Li-, Na-, Zn-, and Mg-Ions Batteries

Due to their diversity in the composition, lattice structures and physical/chemical properties, and various oxidation states (2+, 3+, 4+, and 5+), (V_xO_y) nanomaterials have attached much attention for developing new rechargeable batteries, including lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), sodium-ion batteries (NIBs), zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs), and magnesium-ion batteries (MIBs) as well as new energy storage concepts such as light-rechargeable batteries. However, to further improve the electrochemical performance of V_xO_y-based batteries, it is crucial to understand the various electrochemical mechanisms taking place in these materials for LIBs, NIBs, ZIBs, and MIBs. This review covers a systematical discussion of in situ and operando analysis methods carried out on V₂O₅, VO₂, Li_xV_yO_z, Na_xV_yO_z, Zn_xV_yO_z, and Mg_xV_yO_z for LIBs, NIBs, ZIBs, and MIBs and the fundamental insights they have provided in the energy storage mechanisms in these batteries.