Protective and immunostimulatory roles of yeast-derived vacuoles in immune suppression

This study demonstrates the potent immunomodulatory effects of yeast-derived vacuoles, highlighting their therapeutic potential in counteracting cyclophosphamide (CPA)-induced immunosuppression. Physicochemical characterization revealed that the vacuoles, with an average particle size of 176.8 nm and a zeta potential of −16.76 mV, exhibit favorable stability and are well-suited for cellular uptake. Vacuole treatment preserved body weight and significantly attenuated CPA-induced weight loss, indicating its protective role under immunosuppressive stress. Additionally, vacuole administration restored immune organ function, as evidenced by a dose-dependent increase in spleen and thymus weights. On a molecular level, vacuoles upregulated key immune mediators, including iNOS and TLR2, in liver and spleen tissues, thereby enhancing innate immune signaling pathways. The systemic immune response was further amplified by the increased serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6, reflecting robust immunostimulation. These results position yeast-derived vacuoles as promising immunotherapeutics capable of restoring immune balance and enhancing resistance to immunosuppressive challenges.