When motivation isn’t enough: perceived teacher attitudes, efficacy, and efforts moderate student responses to bullying

Background: Although previous research has identified associations between individual traits—such as empathy and moral disengagement—and bullying-related behaviors, comparatively less attention has been directed toward cognitive and motivational determinants, including outcome expectations and values. Moreover, few studies have investigated how these factors operate in conjunction with students’ perceptions of teachers’ anti-bullying attitudes, efficacy, and efforts. Grounded in social cognitive and expectancy-value theories, this study investigated the unique and interactive contributions of students’ cognitive and motivational characteristics and their perceptions of teacher-related factors in predicting bullying, passive bystanding, and defending behaviors. Methods: Participants were 1,221 fourth- to sixth-grade students (M_age = 10.98, Male 52.7%) across 43 classrooms in South Korea. Students completed self-report measures assessing self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations and values related to defending, and perceptions of teachers’ anti-bullying attitudes, efficacy, and efforts. Multilevel modeling was used to examine student- and classroom-level variations. Results: Students with stronger self-efficacy beliefs, greater expectations that defending would reduce bullying, and higher value placed on such outcomes were more likely to engage in defending and less likely to engage in bullying or passive bystanding behaviors. Perceived teacher attitudes, efficacy, and efforts—at both individual and classroom levels—were independently associated with these behaviors and moderated the effects of motivational variables. Specifically, the influence of students’ expectations and values on defending behavior was attenuated when teachers were perceived as less proactive, less efficacious, or more tolerant of bullying. Conclusions: These findings underscore the joint influence of students’ motivational factors and their perceptions of teachers’ anti-bullying attitudes, efficacy, and efforts in shaping bullying-related behaviors. Although higher self-efficacy, expectations, and values were linked to greater defending, these effects were reduced when teachers were perceived as less engaged or more tolerant of bullying. Interventions should therefore address both students’ cognitive and motivational processes and the broader classroom climate shaped by teacher attitudes and practices.